Agriculture in
Surtschin
“Surtschin”
Ortsbiografie
der deutschen
Minderheit eines
Dorfes in
Syrmien
By: Michael
Schmidt – 1980
Translated by:
Roy Engel
As already
mentioned,
Surtschin was
not established
by German
settlers; the
settlers arrived
in an existing
village already
populated by
people of
another
ethnicity. The
settlers
received no
government land
grants and had
to purchase the
land
themselves.
This is why some
of our farmers
owned too little
land to support
their families. In addition, it
was not only the
farmers, but
also the
craftsmen who
bought land from
the Serbs. It
can be said that
virtually every
German household
in Surtschin
owned some
farmland. As a
result, there
were many small
farms. If a
craftsman had
enough work in
his trade, he
would lease his
parcel of land
to the owner of
a small farm.
Lease terms were
always on a
yearly basis.
The cost of the
lease was always
paid in advance
regardless of
whether the
harvest would be
good or bad. The
lessee always
bore all the
risk. Lease
agreements were
seldom in
writing, but
rather done
verbally and
with a
handshake. The
property taxes
were paid to the
government by
the landowner.
Another way that
agriculture was
practised
involved what
was represented
by the
‘half-share
farmer’ (‘Halbscheidbauer’).
A ‘half-share
farmer’ would
take over the
complete
operation of the
farm to receive
half of the
harvest yield.
He would provide
all the
necessary
equipment and
half of the
seed. Upon
completion of
the harvest, he
would deliver
one half of the
crop to the
landowner. A
‘half-share
farmer’ would
endeavour to
work the same
fields for many
years. This had
the advantage
that he could
cultivate the
land as if it
was his own,
with manure from
his livestock,
because
improvement of
the soil quality
was in his own
interest and to
his own
advantage.
Craftsmen and
day laborers had
the opportunity
to earn enough
grains for the
year by working
for barter
rather than
wages. These
people were
called ‘Risaren’.
Prior to the
start of the
harvest, a
farmer and his
workers would
move from one
parcel of land
to another, to
establish
agreements on
compensation.
Depending on the
condition of the
crop, 80 to 120
kg of wheat were
calculated for
one ‘Joch’
(about 1.4
acres). If the
crop was on the
ground, making
the harvest more
difficult,
additional
compensation
would include a
large loaf of
bread (2 to 2
1/2 kg), ½ kg
bacon or ham, ½
litre of
mulberry
schnapps, and
sometimes 2 to 3
litres of milk.
The ‘Risaren’
were usually
married couples
and would not
have their own
horse and
wagon. The
farmers would
provide these
for the
harvesting teams
if they were
available.
Otherwise, the
farmer would
drive the
workers out to
the fields in
the morning and
then pick them
up in the
evening. Water
and provisions
for the day
would have to be
taken along
every day, as
would be the
children. Older
children would
help with the
work or take
care of the
smaller ones. A
capable and
experienced
husband and wife
team would be
able to harvest
one ‘Joch’ in a
day, and during
the season earn
their supply of
wheat for the
year. Day
workers could
also work for
barter and
similarly earn
their supply of
wheat for the
year. During
the corn harvest
it was possible
to earn enough
feed to fatten
two to three
pigs. In one
day, a man could
earn 50 to 60 kg
of ears of corn,
and a woman
could earn 40 to
50 kg.
The Usage of our
Agricultural
Lands
The main crops
grown in
Surtschin were
wheat and corn.
It can be said
that each one of
these crops
occupied about
one third of the
arable land. The
other crops,
like barley,
oats, rye,
potatoes (for
their own use),
oil-producing
plants
(sunflowers,
rapeseed and soy
beans), feed
crops like
turnips,
alfalfa, red
clover and mohar,
occupied another
third of the
farmland. There
were very few
grazing meadows
in Surtschin.
These could be
leased from the
neighboring
villages of
Betschmen and
Jakovo.
Furthermore,
because of the
soil conditions,
the quality of
hay in these
localities was
better than in
Surtschin.
Wheat
Wheat was
primarily grown
in the ‘upper’
fields of
Surtschin. In
most cases, the
previous crop in
these fields was
corn. As soon
as the corn was
harvested, the
stalks would be
plowed under as
deeply as
possible. If
the previous
crop was
turnips, the
subsequent wheat
yield would be
lower since the
turnip harvest
occurred later
in the season,
and seeding
could not be
done until the
following
spring.
Much care was
taken to make
sure that only
the highest
quality,
mildew-free seed
was planted.
Seeds were
carefully
cleaned, sorted
and dried. In
the later years,
seeding was done
mainly with
machines, but
there was still
some done by
hand. It would
require from 75
to 100 kg of
seed to plant
one ‘Joch’ of
wheat. Rows
were planted
about 8 cm apart
and the seeds
placed 3 cm
deep. In our
region, planting
was done towards
the end of
October until
the beginning of
November. The
advantage of
this timing was
that the seeds
could germinate,
sprout and reach
a height of 2–4
cm before the
frost set in,
making them more
resistant to the
cold of winter.
In the following
spring, as soon
as the ground
was dry, the
surface would be
leveled and, if
necessary,
rolled. Once
the plants had
time to recover,
the hard ground
surface would be
broken up with a
harrow, allowing
air and moisture
to reach the
roots. This
would also
uproot the
surface weed
growth.
Harrowing also
had the
additional
benefit of
thinning out the
crop, thereby
stimulating the
remaining plants
to grow more
quickly and
healthier. If
old corn stalks
would be
unearthed in
this process,
they would be
collected and
used as fuel for
fires. The wheat
crop would need
no further
maintenance
until it was
harvested. This
would occur at
the end of
June. The wheat
was harvested by
mowers, combines
and sometimes
still by
scythe.
Some farmers
would sell a
portion of the
harvest
immediately.
Others would
wait until the
price of wheat
became more
favourable. The
wheat destined
for home
consumption
would be
processed in the
Surtschin mill,
either
immediately or
as required. In
the interest of
using only fresh
flour, care was
taken that not
too much was
ground at one
time. We had
two types of
flour: White
flour was used
for baking and
cooking and
special bread
flour was used
for baking
bread. Upon
request, cream
of wheat
(semolina) would
also be
produced.
The leftover
bran would be
added to animal
feed. The chaff
would also be
used as feed and
the straw for
bedding. The
variety of wheat
most commonly
grown was
“Stahlweizen”
which translates
as “steel
wheat”, and was
also called “Schnarrenweizen”,
or “rattle
wheat”, and was
described as
“granulated”.
The other
variety of wheat
grown was “Dreiundsechziger,”
or “Dickköpfle,"
described as
“non-granular.”
(Translator’s
note: Stahlweizen
was most likely
the species
“Triticum
monoccum,” which
has the common
name “Einkorn.”
It was widely
grown in the
Balkans and the
spikelets
(granules)
separate easily
by threshing of
the mature
plant.
Dreiundsechziger
would have been
the species
“Triticum spelta,”
which is
commonly called
“Spelt.” It was
also grown in
the Balkans and
although it also
has two
spikelets,
unlike Einkorn,
the rachilla
(extensions of
the stem to
which the
spikelets are
attached) remain
attached to the
spikelets after
threshing.
Furthermore, the
Spelt spikelets
contain two
kernels which
have wide,
square glumes,
thereby making
them large in
width.
“Dickköpfle”
translates as
“fat-head.”)
Barley
The soil
composition in
Surtschin was
well suited for
growing barley.
However, very
little was grown
and it was used
primarily for
feed. Most of
it was winter
barley and the
seeding,
cultivation and
harvest was done
exactly as it
was for wheat.
Barley was
always the first
grain to be
harvested,
followed by
wheat and then
oats. It
deserves mention
that dried
barley was also
roasted in an
oven, ground and
mixed with milk,
to produce “malt
coffee”. This
drink would be
served with
preference with
the Sunday
morning
breakfast.
Oats
In Surtschin,
oats were grown
for personal
consumption
only. It was
mostly a spring
crop and was
used either
green or after
harvesting as
feed for
horses.
Rye
Rye was also
called “Kron” in
Surtschin and
was grown in
very small
quantities
because bread
was made
exclusively with
wheat flour.
Each farmer grew
only as much rye
as he needed to
make rope. The
long stalk of
the rye plant
was bunched and
knotted into a
kind of simple
rope. This was
used primarily
to tie the
sheaves of other
crops such as
wheat. After
the corn
harvest, if not
plowed under in
the same field,
corn leaves and
stalks might
also be lashed
together with
rope made from
rye. Rope
manufacturing
was done early
in the morning,
when the stalks
were still wet
with dew and
thereby less
brittle.
Corn
Corn provides an
inexpensive
source of
nutrition for
both man and
animals, and it
requires the
smallest amount
of seed of all
crops. In order
to maximize the
yield of these
fields, beans
and squash were
grown between
the rows of
corn. A type of
wild “sugar
cane” used for
making house
brooms and corn
for making
popcorn were
grown around the
perimeter of the
fields.
The growing of
corn played a
major role in
the agriculture
of Surtschin
because the
climate and soil
were so well
suited. Corn
requires more
heat than the
other crops and
it is easily
damaged by late
frosts, but it
is not sensitive
to what was
planted on the
lot the
preceding year.
It was mostly
grown where
wheat had been
grown in the
previous year.
Due to corn’s
high nitrogen
requirement, the
spreading of
manure on the
fields was
extremely
rewarding.
After the
harvest, the
remaining stalks
would be
collected and
the soil was
deep-plowed
later in the
fall. If manure
was also spread,
the plowing
would not be
done as deeply
so as not to
keep air from
reaching the
manure. This
would ensure a
high quality
layer of humus
for the
following year.
In the spring,
the surface
would be
harrowed,
keeping the soil
moist and
deterring weed
growth. The
selection of
kernels for
seeding was done
very carefully.
Only the
healthiest cobs
were used and
only kernels
from the middle
of the cob, with
the small end
kernels being
discarded.
Since World War
I, corn was
seeded strictly
by machine known
as a
“Kukuruzsetzer”
(“corn
planter”). Very
rarely was
seeding done by
hand. Rows were
planted 70 cm
apart and seeds
spaced every 30
to 50 cm. The
seed depth was 3
to 5 cm. It
would require
10-12 kg of seed
for each ‘Joch’
and planting was
from mid-April
until the end of
the month.
When the seeds
sprouted, the
field was
lightly harrowed
to break the
surface crust.
When the corn
plants had grown
large enough so
that the fourth
leaves had
developed, a
hoeing plow
would be driven
between the
rows, followed
by selective
hoeing by hand.
Hoeing would be
repeated after
two to three
weeks to remove
weeds and thin
out the crop.
When the corn
reached knee
height
(approximately
50 cm), a ridge
plow would be
driven between
the rows,
mounding the
soil at the base
of the stalks.
This would help
to retain
moisture and
stabilize the
plants. Side
shoots that
developed from
any plants would
be removed and
used for feed.
These were a
treat for the
dairy cows. The
harvest would
begin at the
beginning of
September. The
ears were broken
from the stalks
and transported
to the farmyard
for husking and
sorting.
Healthy and ripe
cobs would be
stored in cribs,
while diseased
and immature
ones were used
immediately for
animal feed.
The following
spring, when the
corn was
thoroughly dry,
the kernels
would be removed
from the cobs
and sold. A
large portion
would be kept by
the farmer to
feed his own
livestock. The
leaves and husks
of the corn
plant were used
as winter feed
for animals and
the stalks and
cobs as fuel for
fire. There was
a use found for
every part of
the plant. The
kernels were
used mainly for
animal feed, but
some was also
milled to
produce corn
meal.
Corn was
sometimes grown
strictly as
“green corn” for
animals, usually
on fields where
barley had
already been
harvested.
As a second
crop, it
supplied a good
yield of animal
feed, provided
there were no
droughts.
Feed Crops
Alfalfa was a
favorite feed
crop in our
region because
of its prolific
growth,
longevity (four
to six years)
and its capacity
to provide three
mowings per
year. Alfalfa
grows deep roots
and can
therefore
withstand long
periods of
drought. It was
used primarily
as green feed,
but would also
be dried and
stored as hay.
Alfalfa also has
the capacity to
fix nitrogen
from the air.
This is
performed by the
bacterium
“Sinorhizobium
meliloti” which
lives
symbiotically in
nodules attached
to the alfalfa
roots. This
makes alfalfa
essential
because it not
only doesn’t
deplete the soil
of nitrogen,
but, in fact,
increases it for
subsequent
usage, resulting
in high crop
yields.
Red Clover
The fields of
Surtschin were
seldom used for
growing red
clover because
it was so
sensitive to
drought and not
as hearty as
alfalfa.
However, it had
value as a feed
crop due to its
high protein
content. Mohar
(mohai) was also
grown as a
winter feed.
When it was
harvested,
before ripening
and drying, it
made excellent
winter feed for
livestock.
(Translator’s
note: no
reliable
translation for
mohar (mohai)
was obtained. It
is a cultivated
type of grass).
Beets
Substantial
amounts of beets
were grown.
Together with
ground corn,
clover, wheat
bran and wheat
chaff, they were
a favored
so-called
‘short-feed’ for
the dairy
cattle. The
amount of sugar
beets that were
grown became
ever less,
especially in
the last years
prior to World
War II because
the price of
sugar beets had
dropped to the
point where the
costs of land,
manure and labor
made it a poor
choice of crop
for the farmer.
Sugar beets were
also susceptible
to weevil
infestations,
which could wipe
out large fields
in just a few
days.
The Farmer’s
Work Year
As soon as the
snow had melted
in the spring,
the fields would
be harrowed.
This served to
retain the
moisture and
aerate the
soil. It would
also uproot
shallow weeds.
If the weather
permitted,
furrows for
oats, barley,
turnips and
sugar beets
would already be
plowed in
February.
Towards the end
of March, the
fields for corn
would be deep-plowed
and harrowed a
few times. Corn
was planted at
the beginning of
May. Many years
ago the sowing
of seeds was
done strictly by
hand. It was
usually the
women who would
walk along the
furrows and sow
the kernels.
One can imagine
how much work
this was, given
the vast fields
that were used
to grow corn.
It was during
the 1920’s that
planting was
done more often
by machine.
This was a
tremendous
saving of time
and effort for
the farmer.
By the end of
May, the corn
had reached a
height where
weeding and
cultivating
could not be
done by
machine. Doing
this by hand was
a labor-intensive
job and young
and old had to
participate.
Weeding and
cultivating was
done twice per
crop, so as soon
as all the
fields were done
the first time,
it would be time
to start the
second. The
next task was to
drive the plow
between the rows
of corn to mound
soil at the base
of the stalks.
This preserved
the soil
moisture and
stabilized the
roots.
Similarly, the
beets would
require weeding
and cultivating,
but not
mounding.
At the same
time, work had
to be started in
the vineyards.
Virtually every
farmer grew
grapes for his
own use and this
work had to be
fit into the
busy daily
schedule.
The barley
harvest began
already by the
end of June.
This was a
difficult time
of year for the
farmer because
of the
continuous
workload. As
soon as the
barley was
harvested, it
would be St.
Peter and St.
Paul Day (June
29) and the
wheat harvest
would begin.
Since wheat and
corn were the
two major crops
in Surtschin,
the wheat
harvest made
large demands on
people and
animals. Every
family member
had to
participate in
this harvest.
They would set
out for the
fields at the
first light of
day to
accomplish as
much as possible
before the heat
of the day. At
this time of the
year we had a
searing dry heat
with rarely a
refreshing
rainstorm. A
glowing, dry
heat spread over
the unshaded
fields, as well
as over houses
and yards. Even
the night
brought little
cooling. In the
evenings, when
the “Schnitter”
(cutters) came
home from the
fields
exhausted, there
was still work
to be done and
very little time
to relax and
sleep. The
wives of major
farmers would
not normally
work on the
fields. They
would care for
the livestock
and the young
children and
prepare a hearty
lunch for the
workers, which
would be placed
in baskets and
driven out to
the fields.
During harvest
time, lunches
consisted mainly
of poultry and
fresh-baked
yeast cake.
Some wheat was
still cut with a
scythe, gathered
together with a
sickle and tied
into bell-shaped
sheaves using
homemade ties
made with rye
stalks. The
sheaves were
piled in a
crosswise
pattern in such
a way that the
ears covered
each other and
pointed inwards,
so that the ears
would remain dry
in case of rain.
This arrangement
also served to
complete the
ripening of the
wheat.
After the wheat
harvest came the
turn of the
oats. Mowing
machines began
to be used prior
to World War I.
Even a few
baling machines
appeared at this
time. These
machines greatly
relieved humans.
Once all the
fields were
harvested, the
farmers would
begin
transporting the
crops to the
farmyard, where
they were set up
in high piles.
Farmers with
crop sizes too
large for their
yards assembled
their high piles
in their
fields. The
heavy threshing
machines moved
from yard to
yard to complete
this large
operation. One
could hear the
constant droning
of the machines
from early
morning until
late at night.
All available
hands were
needed at this
time. If a
farmer didn’t
have enough
workers in his
employ, day
workers were
hired.
Threshing was
not done by the
hour, but from
early morning
until well into
the night.
There were eight
threshing
machines in
Surtschin and
most of them
were
steam-powered.
The owner of the
threshing
machine would
provide four men
to operate the
machine, and the
farmer who had
hired the
service would
have to provide
approximately
twenty
additional
helpers. One of
the four
operators was
actually running
the machine, the
other three were
responsible for
feeding the
sheaves into the
thresher. This
was a very
strenuous job,
so these men
worked in
shifts. Two or
three strong
young men would
throw the
sheaves onto the
threshing
machine with
pitch forks,
where two girls
would receive
them and cut the
ties binding the
sheaves, then
pass them on the
man feeding them
into the
machine. Four
or five men
would be
assigned to hand
the empty sacks
to the thresher,
to collect them
when they were
full, weigh
them, carry them
to the granary
and empty them
there. The
owner of the
threshing
machine
controlled the
weighing, as his
payment was
based on it.
For example,
payment for the
use of a
steam-powered
machine was six
to seven percent
of the yield.
For a
gasoline-powered
machine, the
payment was
eight to nine
percent.
Three women or
girls were
assigned to rake
the chaff from
under the
threshing
machine and move
it to a storage
room. The straw
was lifted by an
inclined
conveyer belt
(called
“Elevator”) to
an empty space,
where four or
five men would
portion it and
stack it in a
large pile.
Day workers
received forty
to fifty
kilograms of
wheat and free
meals for a
day’s work.
Help from the
neighborhood
was very
important.
Neighbors,
friends and
relatives were
there to help,
even though it
was hard and
dusty work.
There were
actually very
few farmers who
needed to hire
day workers for
this job. There
was always
particularly
good food
prepared on
threshing days.
There would
usually be soup,
roasted goose
and poppy seed
or sour cherry
strudel. The
farmer’s younger
children (10- to
12-year olds)
and the
neighbors’
children also
helped by
bringing water,
wine and
mulberry
schnapps to the
workers, since
it was very hot
and dusty.
There were no
work stoppages
for vespers on
threshing days.
The day before
his turn for
threshing
arrived, the
farmer had to
prepare barrels
of water for the
steam engine and
for fire
protection. It
was the farmer’s
responsibility
to ensure that
enough water was
always available
during
threshing. The
steam engine
used straw for
combustion, and
it was the
farmer’s
responsibility
to provide it.
After the
threshing was
completed, the
farmer’s wife
returned to her
unfinished
chores in house,
yard and
garden. When
she had some
free time, it
was often spent
spinning wool,
while sitting
with the other
women outside by
the road in the
shade of the
mulberry trees.
The men and sons
plowed the
fields cleared
by the harvest.
Then came the
job of
harvesting
grapes for wine
making.
Virtually every
farmer grew
grapes for his
own use.
The corn harvest
began at the end
of September and
there were no
machines to
assist with
this. If the
fall weather was
beautiful and
dry, the ears
could be removed
from the stalks
and husked in
the fields. All
that remained to
be done at home
was sorting and
storing the corn
in the ‘Hambar’
for drying. If
the weather was
wet or the
harvest had to
be completed in
a hurry, the
corn would be
husked after
harvesting.
Family and
neighbors would
spend the entire
evening in the
shed husking
corn until ten
or half past
ten. This corn
husking was a
much-loved
occasion for
young and old,
because
everybody had
lots of fun,
with the boys
and girls
singing folk
songs. In the
early mornings,
while dew still
clung to the
corn stalks,
they were cut
with a sickle,
bound into
bundles and
stacked in rows
to dry. When
all the autumn
work was done,
the bundles
would be brought
home and used as
feed for the
livestock. The
uneaten dense
cores of the
stalks were
saved as fuel
for fire.
During the corn
harvest, only
cold lunches
were prepared,
followed by a
warm, hearty
meal in the
evening.
When all the
fields had been
harvested, they
would be plowed
immediately and
the wheat fields
would be
seeded. Every
farmer in
Surtschin tried
to make sure
that all his
autumn seeding
was done by the
second Sunday in
November, the
day of the
Kirchweih
festivity in
Surtschin.
If the weather
permitted, the
fields were
prepared for
spring seeding
by spreading
manure on them,
followed by deep
plowing, so that
the soil would
freeze well and
be loose in the
spring.
Then came the
time in which
our farmers
enjoyed some
rest.
Preparations
were made for
the annual
rendering of
pigs, which
concluded in the
evening with the
“Metzelsuppe”, a
feast at which
soup, sausages,
and other
products made
from
freshly-slaughtered
meat were
usually served.
References:
Beschka Homeland
Book by Peter
Lang
Available at http://www.dvhh.org/beschka/book-page.htm#102
and http://www.dvhh.org/beschka/book-page.htm#124
Alternative
Wheat Cereals as
Food Grains:
Einkorn, Emmer,
Spelt, Kamut and
Triticale, by
G.F. Stallknecht,
K.M. Gilbertson
and J.E. Ranney
Available at http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-156.html
[Agriculture in
Surtschin from
the book
“Surtschin”
Ortsbiografie
der deutschen
Minderheit eines
Dorfes in
Syrmien By:
Michael Schmidt
– 1980;
Translated by:
Roy Engel;
Published at
DVHH.org 18 Aug
2008] |
